Research Proposal a Study on Web Portals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Research Proposal a Study on Web Portals - Essay Example Web portals enable people to connect with each other on the internet and share ideas, access useful information and other resources online. Portals are usually available throughout and can be accessed at any time by users. The databases are often updated regularly with the latest information. This study seeks to find out more information about web portals, their use and role in education and business as well as their impact on human communication. A Study on Web Portals Introduction The World Wide Web has been experiencing unprecedented growth since its inception and has been reinvented regularly to meet new demands and requirements of the business and social life making it to become the leading internet application (Erl, 2005). To many people, the World Wide Web has even become synonymous with the internet. One of the biggest reinventions of the World Wide Web is the introduction of web portals. Web portals have had a huge impact on creation of web pages for both corporate businesse s and education institutions such as universities and colleges (Hazra, 2002). Web portals have also greatly altered the way people access information on the internet through the web pages. There are various types of web portals, each serving a different purpose. The most common types of web portals include corporate portals, vertical and horizontal portals, regional and government portals, hosted and domain specific portals. Horizontal portals are those that cover a wide area while vertical portals are only based on one functional area. Regional portals are used for accessing local information about a place such as the weather forecast. Government portals on the other hand are used for storing government records Businesses can use web portals to interact with their clients and customers, or let their customers interact with one another, sharing information about available products. Clients and customers can easily access the businesses website and make enquiries about products and s ervices, place orders or make recommendations to the business (Erl, 2005). This has made online businesses easier to manage and helps corporate organizations interact with the outside world. The fact that web portals are available on the internet gives businesses an edge in that their customers and clients will still be able to access business information beyond working hours. The government can also use the web portal to keep its records and make them available to the public, especially in this era of democracy where people feel the urge to access government information. Government records can safely be stored online and accessed by interested individuals. Another area where Web portals have had a huge impact is in education. Web portals are very effective tools for inculcating scientific knowledge and other information in schools. Users can connect with one another on web portals to form learning communities where they can access relevant information, resources and expert knowledg e and assistance. Web portals also allow users to share and exchange ideas, engage in useful discussions and conduct activities that promote their learning. Online libraries and catalogues are often regularly updated with the latest information. Web portals have made simulation of education in real life much easier as compared to other types of web pages. A web portal can serve as scientific as well as an educational tool for its uses. It provides a platform whereby resources, information, and experts in science can meet and exchange ideas. Moreover, it will create an online opportunity for researchers to further their fieldwork and establish a bridge between class work and field work. The web portal is aimed at enriching its information through accepting contributions from people

Practice In Uk Mental Health Area Social Work Essay

Practice In Uk Mental Health Area Social Work Essay This study takes up the examination of social work practice in the area of mental health in the UK. It is based upon the experiences of the author in the course of her work as a Mental Health Professional in a multidisciplinary team in a community care setting. Mental health issues, more specifically mental illnesses, have troubled humans from the dawn of human civilisation. The history and literature of all historical societies reveal numerous instances of mental disorders among people and the inevitably associated ostracism and discrimination faced by such people. Mental illnesses in the UK, till even some decades back were associated with abnormal, deviant and dangerous behaviour and thousands of people with different types of mental issues were housed in high security asylums against their will for years on end. Such blatant violations of fundamental human rights were carried out at the behest of the medical fraternity with the active support of the government, the judiciary, the legal system, enforcement agencies and society. Social workers entered the area of mental health in the UK in the early decades of the 20th century and progressively increased their interaction and work with mentally ailing people. The involvement of social work practice in the area grew slowly until the 1960s but increased rapidly thereafter. Greater involvement of social work practice led to the development of psycho-social models for providing assistance to people with mental ailments and helped in changing societal perceptions towards such persons. The post Second World War period also witnessed a very substantial shift in governmental and medical approaches towards people with mental health disorders. The last full fledged asylum for housing the mentally ailing was closed down in . Medical disorders are now viewed to be strongly related to various social and economic conditions as also to phenomena like racism, oppression and discrimination. The overwhelming majority of people with mental health ailments are now treated in the community, in the midst of family and friends, and institutionalisation is resorted to only in extreme cases and that too for limited periods of time. Social work practice has become very relevant to the area of mental health. Qualified social workers like the author of the study, known as mental health professionals, work with medical professionals like doctors and psychiatrists and play active, even leading, roles in the assessment, planning, intervention and evaluation of people with mental health disorders. This study takes up the case of Maya, a 68 year old Asian woman, who lives in East London. Maya is a first generation immigrant and has spent much of her life in an alien society. She suffers from depression and has been referred to the local social work authorities. Mayas case is fully described in the appendix to this study and is thus not elaborated here. The essay examines various aspects of Mayas life and experiences in order to crystallise the various factors are contributing to her current mental difficulties. Special emphasis is given to the challenges faced by people suffering from depression and to the high incidence of depression among South Asian women. The study takes up the application of social work theory to practice, the role of oppression and discrimination in the development of mental ailments, the role of social workers in helping mentally ailing persons and the importance of adoption of anti-oppressive approaches in dealing with them. It also details the social services that are available to such service users and how such services can help Jaya. Causes and Consequences of Depression Maya has been intermittently suffering from depression for the last 27 years and has undergone medication and counselling on five occasions. She was specifically referred by her GP to the local social services department following an episode of some severity. Crippling depression is one of the biggest reasons for misery in modern day Britain. It is a submerged problem of immense dimensions that is kept out of sight by family shame. The Psychiatric Morbidity Survey reveals that one in six of UK residents are liable to be diagnosed with depression. It would surprise many people to know that 40% of all physical and mental disabilities are caused by mental illness, even as 17% of such ailments are caused by depression alone. The incidence of depression among people is more than 3 times that of cardiac disease. Psychologists agree that mental illness constitutes the most important predictor of human distress in the UK and is far more powerful than poverty or various other types of disability. With few forms of deprivation being worse than chronic depression, it is evident that social workers should give the highest priority to care for persons with depression and other mental health ailments. Much of research on the causes of depression has necessarily being medical in nature. A number of medical studies reveal that depression can arise out of a range of factors like medical and physical disabilities, the death of loved people, social isolation, exclusion and loneliness, and abusive relationships, separation and divorce. Depression can also be initiated by economic and other types of stress, estrangement from family members, the compulsion to care for ailing family members and relocation. Social work research on the other hand reveals that social phenomena like racism, discrimination and oppression can play significantly causal roles in the emergence of depression. Individuals from different religious, ethnic and cultural backgrounds have often been subjected to discrimination in the UK. The decades after the closure of the Second World War witnessed a large influx of people from erstwhile British colonies in Africa, Asia and the Caribbean into the UK. Such immigrants, many of whom came to the UK to escape from lives of poverty, hardship and violence in their home countries, were often subjected to various degrees of oppressive and discriminatory treatment, both in the workplace and in the community. Such discriminatory treatment manifested itself in areas of employment, education and access to public facilities. Immigrants were treated differently and subjected to discrimination because of their lack of familiarity with the English language, their different physical appearances, religious traditions, cultural and social habits and their clothes. Such discrimination sometimes assumed distinctly undesirable dimensions like in the case of Christopher Clunis. A mentally disturbed person of African origin, Clunis murdered Jonathan Zito, a young white man, at a tube station in 1992.Whilst subsequent enquiries revealed that Clunis was mentally disturbed and he was subsequently institutionalised, the British media built up a picture of Clunis, (as a large, clumsy, unkempt and violent man), with strong overtones of racism. The numerous incidents of discrimination and ill treatment of persons of Asian origin in the USA after the September 11 attacks reveal racism and social discrimination to be a latent phenomenon that continues to work under the surface in societies and surfaces in response to different types of provocation and perceptions. Immigrants and their families even today have much poorer levels of education, income, health and public participation than members of the mainstream white majority in the UK. Maya is a first generation immigrant who was uprooted from her familiar North Indian environment when she was still in her teens and thrust into alien surroundings; she was unfamiliar with the local language and found it extremely difficult to communicate with others. Her social life was perforce restricted to the local Indian community in east London, which itself was very small when she came to England. Her husband and children, who had to adjust to the local community and its demands and expectations in order to survive and enhance their life chances, would have in all likelihood faced numerous incidences of discrimination and oppression over the course of their lives. Mayas domestic problems were also intensified because of her compulsion to stay with her husbands parents, a tradition that is still widely followed by the Asian community in the UK. Depression among Women from South Asian Communities in the UK A number of social work surveys and studies indicate that the incidence of depression is significantly high in South Asian women. Whilst such women originate from a large and ethnically diverse area that comprises of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Ceylon, many South Asian women suffer from similar causes for mental depression. Fenton and Carlsen, (2002) state that the main causes for depression amongst such populations are experiences of racism, family difficulties, financial problems, poor physical health and lack of employment. Women from these communities experience excessive mental pressure on account of community influence and reputation. Some of them have to cope with unsuitable marriages and unhappy relationships with their in-laws. Such circumstances create enormous difficulties and life challenges and moreover do not provide any avenues for escape. Some women have described how their families and the larger Indian community made them feel inadequate and repeatedly impressed upon them that they were failing in meeting their familial obligations. Such women also feel pressurised because of social isolation, lack of friends and acquaintances, inadequate education and stressful living conditions. The case study reveals that Maya has often been subjected to stress because of her difficult and strained relationship with her mother in law. It is also evident that the option of setting up home independently was never explored by her husband. It needs to be noted that whilst joint family living is common in South Asian communities, it is also often economically necessary because of straitened financial conditions and the additional costs that are likely to be incurred if children opt to live separately from their parents. Depression evidences itself in symptoms like change in eating and sleeping habits, lack of interest in normal daily activity, withdrawal from children, family and friends, overlooking of necessary activities at the home and outside and finally self destructive tendencies. Depressed people are prone to self harm and develop suicidal tendencies. Maya suffers from irregular sleeping habits, often sleeps late at night, gets up late in the mornings and is sometimes unable to cook for her family. She has reduced her interaction with outsiders and is becoming distant from her immediate family. She often suffers from headaches and cries for no reason. Such manifestations and symptoms constitute strong reasons for addressing depression in an elderly person like Maya. Not treating depression can place her and other older people at increased risk for additional physical and mental health problems. The disinclination to get out of the house and exercise can increase her hypertension, lead to diabetes and faster deterioration of the heart, lungs, bones and muscles. It can also lead to deeper, debilitating depression. Implications for Social Work Theory and Practice Social work theory and practice is fundamentally concerned with the improvement of the social and economic circumstances of disadvantaged individuals and groups and the challenging of oppression and discrimination in all its forms. Systems theory in particular, whilst abstract in nature and not applied systematically, has helped social workers to move from linear and causative medical models to significantly greater multi-causal contexts for the understanding of human behaviour. General systems theory provides a conceptual scheme for realising the interactions among different variables, rather than by reducing behavioural explanations to one reason. This is clearly evident in the area of mental health, where depression in people and their resultant behaviour is associated with a number of interacting social, biological and psychological factors. Systems theory requires social workers to examine the multiple systems in which people interact. Assessment of mentally ailing persons will for example require social workers to obtain information from different sources and place them in appropriate family and community contexts. Knowledge of social constructionism theory on the other hand enables social workers to realise how language has been used by medical experts and other dominant groups to build up images of the mentally disturbed as people who cannot look after themselves and their families and who need to be treated by medical experts. Modern societys perceptions about mental illnesses are significantly shaped by medical models, which state that medical ailments represent serious conditions that can make it hard for persons to sustain relationships and engage in employment. They can lead to self-destructive and even suicidal action (Walker, 2006, p 71-87). Social constructionism theory states that such perceptions are built by purposely developed vocabularies of medical models, which are bursting with complex nomenclatures for mental ailments and fixed on deficits. Walker, (2006, P 72), argues that vocabularies of medical models, including that of mental illness, are social constructs, comprising of terms that detail deficits and view humans as objects for examination, diagnosis and treatment, much like machines. Such perceptions result in treatments that is focused on removal of symptoms and do not take account of actual client needs (Walker, 2006, p 71-87). Social constructionism can assist social workers in realising the disparaging chimeras that have been built by existing medical models about the mentally ill. Social workers must also be informed by the theories of oppression and discrimination that condition and shape the behaviours of people, both the oppressors and the oppressed, towards poor, isolated and disadvantaged segments of society. Neil Thompsons PCS theory of oppression (2001), states that oppressive and discriminatory attitudes in people are socialised over the course of their life by three strong influences, namely personal perceptions and cultural and structural influences. Personal perceptions about the mentally ill can arise through reading about such people, viewing them on cinema, thinking about them and other such associated activities. Cultural influences comprise of numerous cognitive inputs from school, friends, family and the larger community about the mentally ill and unstable. Structural influences arise from the various embedded factors in the larger environment like their lack of fitness for employment and their need to be bodily restricted. These PCS factors s hape the minds of individuals and build up strong discriminatory attitudes that rest below the surface and are manifested in various ways. The media outrage over the Clunis incident and the construction of the person into a larger than life image of a socially dangerous person represents the way in which such discriminatory attitudes can often shape the behaviours and actions of people. Chew-Graham et al (2002), state that whilst the incidence of depression among South Asian women is significantly higher than the national average, such women faced numerous barriers in accessing social services because of internal and external barriers. Whilst internal barriers occurred because of family structures and community pressures, external barriers happen because of their unfamiliarity with English, difficulty in communicating with local social services departments and the disinclination of social workers to come to their aid. Services thus tended to be accessed only at points of desperation if at all and increase the tendency of such women to engage in self destructive activities. Dominelli (2002), states that discriminatory attitudes are deeply embedded in the existing social work infrastructure and can be eliminated only if there is a genuine and widespread feeling among social workers to do so. The labelling theory states that the self identity of individuals is often de termined by the terms that are used to describe them.

Argument Supporting Gay Marriage Essay -- Homosexual Gay Lesbian Right

Lindsey and Beth, a lesbian couple, have been living together for eleven years. Lindsey conceived two children from a sperm donor. Together, Lindsey and Beth turned their house into a loving home for their two children. One day, on the way home from the grocery store, Lindsey was killed in a tragic car accident. Before Beth could even grasp the situation, the children that she helped raise from birth had been taken away and placed into the care of Lindsey's parents, who never were a part of their lives because they did not accept Lindsey's homosexuality. In addition, the house that Beth and Lindsey lived in for eleven years was taken away from Beth. How did this happen to Beth? Well, if Lindsey and Beth could have been legally married like all heterosexual couples, Beth would have had custody of the children and would have kept the house. They would have received 1,049 protections, benefits and responsibilities that are extended to married couples under federal law (HRC). Lindsey and Beth are one example of same sex couples that live in 99.3 percent of all counties in the United States (HRC). It is estimated that 10 percent or 25 million people in the United States are homosexuals, and by law they do not have the rights that married heterosexuals enjoy. American voters have the power to change the law and prevent the sad story that Beth had to live, by voting "yes" on referendums in support of gay marriage, and "no" on bans of gay marriage. The opening scenario of Lindsey and Beth is a dilemma that is becoming more of a real situation each day. The fact is that people are forming unions regardless of the law. In all fairness, the people involved in these relationships should have the same legal rights as all other American... ...discriminating against gay marriage. But by voting "yes" on referendums in support of gay marriage, and "no" on bans of gay marriage, our society can become one step closer to creating a more fair and just society that supports diversity and accepts people with a different life-style. Works Cited Human Rights Campaign (HRC). 26 Nov 2006. . Moats, David. Civil Wars a Battle for Gay Marriage. New York: Harcourt, Inc., 2004. Rauch, Jonathan. Gay Marriage. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC, 2004. Robertson, Donald L. Dr. "Homosexuality and Genetics." 26 Nov 2006. . "U.S. Census Figures Continue To Show National Trend." Human Rights Campaign. 27 June 2006. 26 Nov 2006. eleases/20011/U_S_Census_Figures_Continue_To_Show_National_Trend.htm>.

Reflective Critique Essay

â€Å"As important as methods may be, the most practical thing we can achieve in any kind of work is insight into what is happening inside us as we do it. The more familiar we are with our inner terrain, the more sure footed our [work] – and living- becomes.† P. J. Palmer (cited in Skovholt, T. M., 2001). The pursuit for self-awareness or self-understanding is a chief factor of valuable reflective practice. Counsellors need not only to be conscious of their abilities, facts and presentation as professionals, but also wary of any private aspects that may mess with or obstruct their capability to supply an efficient and objective service. Counselling professionals in their everyday practice encounter unique and difficult circumstances which may be impossible to resolve by only scientific rationale approaches. Any counsellor employing the technique of reflective practice knows that this is as an approach which promotes deeper understanding and elicits critical thinking ski lls that spawns opportunities for further personal development. This course of Professional Development is one means of developing reflective practice, linking the internal and external worlds of the practitioner. II.The Model of Reflective Practice: With the preceding information in mind, I have come to realize that reflective practice can be a very beneficial process in my own professional development as an educator, because both teaching and learning processes requires special knowledge, skills and experiences. Reflective practice is a professional development process that is believed to be highly effective in achieving behavioral change. In the profession of counselling, reflective practice is referred to mindful practice in that reflective counsellors possess certain qualities; they are aware of their own strengths and inadequacies, they carry out counselling with purpose and intention, and they examine their own levels of stress and are wary of personal matters that may interfere with their performance. Though I may have the aforementioned underlying qualities and drive to become an efficient professional, I have discovered that reflective counsellors take the time to assess and process their performance after each counsell ing session and are obligated to ongoing personal growth and professional development. Therefore acting in the capacity as a counsellor, and depending on fair self-assessment I cannot satisfactorily state at present that my reflective practice is resonant of same because there are areas where I see weaknesses rather than strengths and I attribute this flaw to my lack of experience in the field. I believe at this point in my training I will function better under the watchful eye of a counselling supervisor. This course lent focus to a host of different models associated with reflective practice which was necessary to demonstrate proper counselling professionalism. One such model in particular refers to the work of David Schà ¶n who was very instrumental in developing concepts of self-awareness in relation to the aspect of reflective practice. Schà ¶n (1987 in Sharpy, 2005) identified two types of reflection that focused on the practitioner; reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. According to him the first, reflection-in-action, occurs when the professional ref lects on their own behaviour as it occurs, which enhances their following actions immediately. Compared with reflection-on-action which is essentially reflection after the event, where the professional counsellor reviews, describes analyses and/or evaluates the situation, to gain insights for improved practice in the future. Using this model in my reflective practice as a counsellor was intended to elicit skills, knowledge and performance acquired from the previously related course. It was expected that I incorporated my capacity to reflect in counselling, use attending, empathy, reframing and active questioning to name a few in making the client see things differently whilst getting her closer to making the appropriate adjustments in the situation. This also meant that I had to think quickly, process information and pose questions that will bring possible solutions as I worked or as Schà ¶n would say it was mastering the art of being able to â€Å"think on your feet†. My main challenge whilst using this model is that I feel I am unable to reach interventions at once and may need time to assess situations as I would not want to cause the client ambiguity in judgments due to spur of the moment solutions; so I believe my modus operandi for reframing will be stronger after I have reflected and in reference to the model I can be stronger as a practitioner who uses â€Å"reflection-on-action† rather than â€Å"reflection-in-action†. I noticed too, that my strengths are mainly in the areas of empathy, questioning, listening and attending; and that even though I may have to ponder a bit on situations I know I have the competence to identify problems and assist in arriving at potential solutions.

A finger at the monster Essay

The monsters attempts fail. When he tries to befriend blind De Lacey, his son Felix, takes it as if the monster is trying to hurt the old man, and with â€Å"supernatural force tore† (134) the monster away from his father. Although, the monster could have â€Å"torn him limb from limb† (134) his â€Å"heart sunk† (134). The monster realized that he will never be accepted by anyone due to his appearance, and how could anyone accept him when his own creator abandoned him. The monster is all alone. At this point he seeks revenge, revenge upon Victor that â€Å"cast him abroad an object for the scorn and horror of mankind† (138) and rightfully so. When the monster saves a girl from drowning, instead of people showing him gratitude he is shot and wounded, his â€Å"reward of my benevolence†¦ the miserable pain of a wound† (140). Why should he continue to be kind to humans, when every encounter he had with them were horrific, and all due to his appearance. It is no surprise that the monster turned from good to evil after everything he endured. He adapted to the elements he was surrounded with, not by choice. The monster is an outsider of his abnormality, isolated from society. All he wants is someone to talk to, a friend, and thus, asks Victor to â€Å"make him happy† (145) by creating a companion of opposite sex, as â€Å"hideous† (145) as he is. Victor agreed to fulfill his wishes but, in the end, he changes his mind and destroys it, leaving the first monster alone, yet again. He robs the monster hope of a companion, in doing so provokes him. Victor’s justification that the monster might be â€Å"more malignant than her mate† (164) sounded more like an excuse to abort his work. He was well aware what his actions might lead to, Henry’s and Elizabeth’s death (which they ultimately did). The monster warned Victor that he will be with Victor on his wedding night (167). However, Victor brushes it off as if the monster was threatening his life. He was so self-centered that if he paid closer attention to the monsters threats he would have realized that he was not referring to Victor but, to Elizabeth when he said â€Å"Shall each man, find a wife for his bosom, and each beast have his mate, and I be alone? † (166). Victor is wrapped around his own self-pity, feeling sorry for Elizabeth when she finds, â€Å"her lover so barbarously snatched from her† (167). He doesn’t feel sorry for Elizabeth, his sorrow is for himself. Victor is left to anticipate his death. One is quick to judge the unfortunate monster that is left to fend for itself. Alone, abandoned, lonely and loveless, thriving for one tiny bit of human attention and acceptance from anyone. You may argue that the killer deserved no less. However, do not be hasty in your judgment of the ill-fated creature who was abandoned by his hypocritical creator for the sole reason of not being pleasing to the eye. The mind of the creator, Victor, proved to be quite shallow. He did not take time to assess true worth of his creation, to see what is valuable under the unsightly exterior. So what if the monster was not appealing enough? The monster was intelligent, patient and in need of love and company. The monster was not picky of whose company that may be. He is willing to talk to anyone who would stand the sight of him, but no one did. A killer whose hand was â€Å"forced† to kill by his creator who did not take responsibility to train his creation, teach him right from wrong – educate him. One can argue that Victor Frankenstein didn’t kill anyone therefore is less of a monster. If you take into consideration that he deserted his so called â€Å"first born†, he might as well have killed the monster and saved him years of misery, sorrow, humiliation, loneliness and abandonment. Think of it this way; in the eyes of the dragon St. George, it must have looked as the biggest monster, but, under the circumstances, opinion of the poor creature counts for very little. We don’t seem to care for the dragon anymore than we care for a poorly created monster. Do we not then blame the creation more than we blame the creator who is greedy, self-centered, self-indulgent, self-gratifying, conceited, egoistical and selfish to no end? Victor, the creator, is not a killer but he may as well been. His actions lead to many innocent lives. Victor never tried to rectify his behavior towards the monster, even after the first death occurred. Victor just took the death as his punishment. He didn’t stop the second killing, third nor fourth. It was Victor’s sole responsibility to care for the creature. Even if you still argue that the monster was the one committing murders, admitted that was his only sin. The monster had not thought of the meaning of â€Å"thou shall not kill†. Can you argue that the creator’s greed for power was any less deadly of the sin than the one of his creation? Victor’s pride which prevented him from accepting the monster was also the reason that instigated his need for monsters creation. All Victor had ever done was for his own prestige and glory that served himself with total disregard of others. With all the killings the monster had committed, you still find sympathy for the poor creature. At least he is regretful and remorseful for his actions. The monster confessed his sins and wept in his self-realization, â€Å"even that enemy of God and man had friends and associates in his desolation, I am alone† (218). We find the sympathy to forgive the unfortunate monster for the fear that perhaps, heaven forbid, one day we would end up alone. Works Cited Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. Ed. Karen Karbiener. New York: Barnes & Noble Classics, 2003. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Mary Shelley section.

Free Essays on Anglo Saxons

The Anglo-Saxon Period (440-1066) was a time of fierce battles coupled with equally fierce loyalty to rulers and tribes. It also saw the great change of Christianity remolding the pagan cultures. A time in many ways different from our own, a belief in an impersonal and indifferent Fate hung over their lives every day. A strong sense of the passing away of all things present in the world was very evident. This pessimistic view was in common with their surrounding environment where there was the continual threat of death by accident or warfare. Human strength was measured by the ability to control the reaction to fate through courage and sheer will. This was to be intrinsic with loyalty to leaders, even to the extent of showing grave courtesy to persons of high rank in neighboring and/or rival tribes. However this was yoked with a democratic frame of mind, in the sense that individuals would group together to discuss opinions and events. The time was not without its qualities that we would now consider positive. For instance, the great epic of Beowulf shows, along with its gory and graphic elements, a stranger coming to the aid of a town unbidden, great banquets with eating, drinking and music with `... the harp`s rejoicing / Call and the poet`s clear songs ...` (lines 4-5). As well we see the closeness of the community and the reliance each member had on those around him... Free Essays on Anglo Saxons Free Essays on Anglo Saxons The Anglo-Saxon Period (440-1066) was a time of fierce battles coupled with equally fierce loyalty to rulers and tribes. It also saw the great change of Christianity remolding the pagan cultures. A time in many ways different from our own, a belief in an impersonal and indifferent Fate hung over their lives every day. A strong sense of the passing away of all things present in the world was very evident. This pessimistic view was in common with their surrounding environment where there was the continual threat of death by accident or warfare. Human strength was measured by the ability to control the reaction to fate through courage and sheer will. This was to be intrinsic with loyalty to leaders, even to the extent of showing grave courtesy to persons of high rank in neighboring and/or rival tribes. However this was yoked with a democratic frame of mind, in the sense that individuals would group together to discuss opinions and events. The time was not without its qualities that we would now consider positive. For instance, the great epic of Beowulf shows, along with its gory and graphic elements, a stranger coming to the aid of a town unbidden, great banquets with eating, drinking and music with `... the harp`s rejoicing / Call and the poet`s clear songs ...` (lines 4-5). As well we see the closeness of the community and the reliance each member had on those around him...

Deregulation Essays - Air Traffic Control, Free Essays, Term Papers

Deregulation Essays - Air Traffic Control, Free Essays, Term Papers Deregulation Deregulation of the U.S. airline industry has resulted in ticket prices dropping by a third, on an inflation-adjusted basis. As a result some 1.6 million people fly on 4,000 aircraft every day. Airlines carried 643 million passengers in 1998, a 25% increase over 1993 and the FAA estimates that the nations airline system will have to accommodate 917 million passengers by the year 2008. The growth in air travel threatens to overwhelm the presently inadequate air traffic control system, which has not kept pace with available technology in navigation, communications, and flight surveillance. Much of the equipment used for air traffic control today is based on fifty-year-old technology; for example, analog simplex voice links for communications and ground-based radar for surveillance, and VHF Omnidirectional Range/Distance Measuring Equipment (VOR/DME) for navigation. The lack of system automation imposes heavy workloads on human air traffic controllers and increases the risk of accidents in heavy traffic situations. Capacity limits are being reached in both airports and airspace, with congestion delays in departure and arrival schedules reaching record numbers. Funds to upgrade the air traffic control system are available in the trust fund created to receive the tax applied to airline passenger tickets and the tax on fuel for general aviation. The General Accounting Office says modernizing the air traffic control system will cost at least 17 billion for just the first 5 years of the FAAs 15-year National Airspace System improvement plan. It is the NAS that provides the services and infrastructure for air transportation. Air transportation represents 6% of the Nations gross domestic product, so the NAS is a critical element of our national economy. Given the size of the NAS, the task ahead is enormous. Our NAS includes more than 18,300 airports, 21 air route traffic control centers, over 460 air traffic control towers and 75 flight service stations, and approximately 4,500 air navigation facilities. The NAS spans the country, extends into the oceans, and interfaces with neighboring air traffic control systems for international flights. The NAS relies on approximately 30,000 FAA employees to provide air traffic control, flight service, security, and field maintenance services. More than 616,000 active pilots operating over 280,000 commercial, regional, general aviation and military aircraft use the NAS. On March 11, 1999, the FAA released the NAS Architecture Version 4.0 to the public. Key influences on the architecture include the 1996 White House Commission on Aviation Safety and Security, which recommended that the FAA accelerate modernization of the NAS, and the 1997 National Civil Aviation Review Commission, which recommended funding and performance management methods for implementing NAS modernization. It describes the agencys modernization strategy from 1998 through 2015. Based on the Free Flight operational concept, Version 4.0 contains capabilities, technologies, and systems to enhance the safety of the aviation system and provide users and service providers with more efficient services. Free Flight centers on allowing pilots, whenever practical, to choose the optimum flight profile. This concept of operations is expected to decrease user costs, improve airspace flexibility, and remove flight restrictions. The NAS Architecture is divided into three modernization phases and its implementation is being synchronized with the International Civil Aviation Organization to ensure interoperability and global integration. h Phase 1 (1998-2002) focuses on sustaining essential air traffic control services and delivering early user benefits. Free Flight Phase 1 will be implemented. Controller computer workstations will begin major upgrades. Satellite-based navigation systems will be deployed, and air-to-air surveillance will be introduced. The Year 2000 computer problem will hopefully be fixed. h Phase 2 (2003-2007) concentrates on deploying the next generation of communications, navigation and surveillance (CNS) equipment and the automation upgrades necessary to accommodate new CNS capabilities. Satellite-based navigation systems will be further augmented in local areas for more precise approaches. New digital radios that maximize the spectrum channels will be installed. As users equip, automatic dependent surveillance ground equipment will be installed to extend air traffic control surveillance services to non-radar areas. Tools from Phase 1 will be deployed throughout the NAS and upgraded as necessary. h Phase 3 (2008-2015) completes the required infrastructure and integration of automation advancements with the new CNS technologies, enabling additional Free Flight capabilities throughout the NAS. Two important features will be NAS-wide information sharing

Seen in the Classifieds

Seen in the Classifieds Seen in the Classifieds Seen in the Classifieds By Maeve Maddox Spelling counts, even in the classified section of a newspaper. Since people who place the ads cant depend upon someone at the paper to correct their spellings, its a good idea to be careful. Here are some spellings Ive noticed in classified ads: Dalmation pups for sale Bluehealer pups for sale Female lab spaded Duncan Fife for sale Vaccum cleaner for sale The big white dog with black spots is a Dalmatian. The name comes from the dogs presumed place of origin: the province of Dalmatia on the Adriatic Sea. Think Dalmatia and then add an n. I suppose a holy man who paints himself blue could be a blue healer, but the dog is a blue heeler. The dog was bred to herd cattle by snapping at their heels. The process of removing the ovaries of a female animal is called spaying. Such an animal has been spayed and can be called a spay. Sheriff Andys sidekick was Barney Fife, but the man who designed the furniture with the funny legs was Duncan Phyfe (1768-1854). The unusual pairing of us in vacuum should make the spelling easy to remember. The two us create a kind of vacuum in the word. Of course, even if you turn in correctly-spelled ad copy, theres always the possibility that the typesetter will make a mistake. Cant help you there. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Spelling category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:When to use "on" and when to use "in"Homonyms, Homophones, Homographs and HeteronymsHow to Treat Names of Groups and Organizations

Radiobiology of proton therapy, heavy ion therapy and neutron therapy Essay

Radiobiology of proton therapy, heavy ion therapy and neutron therapy - Essay Example For example, tumor cells often lack the necessary mechanisms required to effectively repair radiation damages. Despite the relative efficacy, safety and reliability of most conventional radiation modalities one of the key problems associated with many photon beams therapies is how to deliver an ideal dose that will kill all the tumor cells without affecting the surrounding normal tissues. However, this is often difficult to achieve due to the unavoidable deposition of radiation dose at the point of radiation entrance (Durante and Loeffler, 2010, p.42). The therapeutic application of charged particle energy beams began in 1946 after the discovery of the radiobiological properties of proton beams. Since then, the use of particle beam radio therapy procedures such as proton therapy, heavy ion therapy and neutron therapy is increasingly gaining importance in therapeutic radiobiology particularly in the treatment of diseases such as cancer (Cunha, 2010, p.1505). The delivery of the radiat ion in sessions (fractionation) in particle beam therapy also ensures that the target cells are destroyed while the surrounding normal tissues are able to repair themselves. This is particularly attributed to their characteristic physical depth-dose distribution ability that ensures maximum high precision impact on the target tumor cells. Compared to the conventional photon radiotherapy, the use of high energy beams of charged protons, neutrons and heavy ions provides significant advantages particularly in the treatment of deep localized tumors. For example, treating cancerous or tumor cells using beams of charged particles allow a more precise approach than most of the conventional radiotherapy modalities. This consequently shortens the treatment time while at the same time minimizing the irradiation of the surrounding disease free tissues. This paper critically analyzes the radiobiology of proton therapy, heavy ion therapy and neutron therapy as well as their potential benefits an d limitations. Figure 1: Comparative lateral penumbra for photons, protons and heavy ions (carbon ions) Proton Therapy Proton beam radiotherapy is increasingly being used due to its numerous potential physical and radiobiological advantages over the conventional radiotherapy techniques. According to Schulz-Ertner and Tsujii (2007, p.954), protons are particularly preferred as a radio therapy option due to their distinct depth –dose profile which makes them particularly suitable for therapeutic use in deep seated, localized and radioresistant tumors. Although the use of proton therapy for tumor treatment is currently a well established therapeutic modality in many parts of the world, the application of other heavy ions and neutrons is still restricted to a few medical facilities due to the potential dangers associated with such high energy beams. Proton particle therapy works by directing energetic ionizing particles such as protons, neutrons or heavy ions towards the target t umor cells. The particles then damage the DNA of the target cells thereby causing their ultimate death. The radiation induced cell death is primarily caused by the damage to the nuclear materials due to secondary electron production. For example, particle beams such as protons often deposit their energy at higher linear energy transfer (LET) compared to electromagnetic radiation (Fokas et al., 2009, pp.224). The dose deposited in the surrounding tissues is one of the most important aspects of particle beam

Computer Systems Fundamentals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Computer Systems Fundamentals - Essay Example released their RSA algorithm into the public domain, in advance of the US patent (#4,405,829) expiring on the 20th Sept. of the same year. Following the relaxation of the US government restrictions earlier in the year (Jan. 14) this removed one of the last barriers to the world-wide distribution of much software based on cryptographic systems. It should be noted that the IDEA algorithm is still under patent and also that government restrictions still apply in some places. 11. [Year:2004, Month: Apr 14]nVidia releases GeForce 6800, claiming it is the biggest leap in graphics technology the company ever made. Independent reviews show more than 100% increase in productivity compared with the fastest card on the market. Continuing the tradition, nVidia demonstrates Nalu, a mermaid with extremely realistic hair. A few weeks later nVidia's main rival ATi announces X800 with nearly the same level of performance and feature support. The card is showcased by the Ruby demo, delivering a smooth real-time rendering of what was previously in the exclusive realm of prerendered cinematics. Memory speeds are written in different formats depending on the type of memory technology your computer uses. FPM and EDO speeds are written in nanoseconds (ns). SDRAM, DDR, and DDR2 speeds are written in megahertz (MHz) Here is a rough guide to relative memory speeds: i. Memory Speed Technology Speed Module Bandwidth SDR PC100 0.8 GB/sec SDR PC133 1.0 GB/sec DDR PC1600 1.6 GB/sec DDR PC2100 2.1 GB/sec DDR PC2700 2.7 GB/sec DDR PC3200 3.2 GB/sec DDR PC4000 4.0GB/sec DDR2 PC2-3200 3.2GB/sec DDR2 PC2-4200 4.2GB/sec DDR2 PC2-5300 5.3GB/sec DDR2 PC2-6400 6.4GB/sec Source: See http://www.crucial.com/crucial/pvtcontent /memorytype.aspmodel=&memtype=CHOOSE The costs of the

Reaction Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reaction Paper - Essay Example On the other hand, its placement within the Kyper belt makes it part of other debris floating in this space. Its long distance away from Sun and the estimated 560 year orbiting time, also demarcates it from the eight well-established planets. Fascinated I was with Dr. Brown’s free-flowing narrative of the events in the lead-up to the eventual discovery, I was also impressed by his mastery of scientific technique and methodology. The way he explained how digital cameras and high-power telescope were used for the project was quite lucid. Toward the end of the lecture, Dr. Brown expressed his displeasure about the tendency among the community of astronomers to give importance to precise definitions of what a planet is. As per the newly coined definition of a planet, both Eris and Pluto do not qualify, thereby leaving the number of recognized solar planets to be eight (stopping with Neptune). Upon hearing this decision to drop Pluto and Eris from the class of planets, I was a tad disappointed. But as Dr. Brown explains at length, such rigid formalizations go against the spirit of astronomy and cosmology. I agree with his view that it is the concept and description which matters, not narrow definitions. Lecture Notes: Lecture organized by Astronomical society - Dr.

Automotive need for gas vs. Hybrid vs. corn Assignment

Automotive need for gas vs. Hybrid vs. corn - Assignment Example D. Anderson & J. Anderson, 2010). Moreover, the use of fossil fuels has increased environmental dangers, thereby fueling global warming. Burning gallons of fossil fuels are increasing the amount of the greenhouse gases, thereby accelerating the global warming. Additionally, the greenhouse gases have subjected humanity to ill health and diverse environmental conditions that have affected the world’s economy. Numerous challenges have been brought about by fossil fuel; therefore, scientists have been searching for an alternative environmental friendly source of energy. Some scientists have suggested the use of hydrogen gas an alternative source of fuel. However, the doubt in the safety of hydrogen gas has slowed down its exploitation and subsequent use as an alternative source of fuel. Additionally, others have suggested the exploitation and use of the natural sources of energy including sunlight and wind. The exploitation of these natural sources of energy may not be quite relia ble due to the inconveniences and unreliable biodiversity and ecosystem. Nonetheless, the scientists in the renewable energy industries across the United States have settled in the use of hybrid biofuel (ethanol) and technology as the alternative to deal with the fossil fuels. Therefore, the scientists have arrived at the use of bountiful corn as a source of fuel for the hybrid transportation technologies. In United States, corn is used to produce ethanol, which is an alcohol. There are numerous ways of making the fuel grade ethanol. The most common process follows the dry mill method where the corn is grinded into powder and mixed with water in the presence of enzyme (Dalton, Hoyle, & Watts, 2011). The mixture is heated at high temperatures after which it is liquefied. The enzyme helps in breaking down grain compounds. The mixture is then taken under a subsequent liquefaction process. The liquid mash is poised, and other enzyme that converts starch in the mixture into sugar is adde d. The additional enzyme helps in fermenting the compound into alcohol. At this stage, yeast is often added to start up the fermentation process where sugars are broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Ethanol is then extracted from the products mixture. The obtained ethanol gas is often mixed with a small quantity of gasoline to make the biofuel, ethanol undrinkable. Module 2: The History of Early Solutions The effects of the fossil fuels have led to numerous problems including global warming and affecting numerous vehicle parts. These problems marked the first intents of scientists to search for alternative fuels that would reduce the production of the greenhouse gases into the Earth’s atmosphere (C. D. Anderson & J. Anderson, 2010). The first countries to initiate the use of ethanol fuel were Brazil and United States. From these countries, the production and use of both biofuel and hybrid technologies did spread to other nations and continents. In the United States, t he United States Department of Agriculture (DOA) and the United States Department of Energy (DOE) are the organizations that are partly funding the production of ethanol from corn and other hybrid technologies. Since the introduction of the ethanol gas or fuel, numerous economic sectors and the environment factors have registered some positive impacts. Notably, the use of the gas dramatically reduced the dependency of America on imported fuel. Moreover, the ethanol fuel consumers have undoubtedly benefited from reduced prices of fuel

English Only Policy in the Work Place Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

English Only Policy in the Work Place - Essay Example The recommendation mandating the exclusive use of English at all times in the workplace should not be made into a policy. The policy recommending for the exclusive use of the English language should not be adopted in the organization. Adoption of this policy will at a huge extent bring forth more negative outcomes than positive ones. This is considering the whole organization at large and the employees in more specific terms. Whereby an employee fails to perform their duties or tasks effectively due to their failure to speak English in the workplace or the case where they use a foreign language or an accent that affects their output. There in no problem whatsoever with employees speaking their native language in the work place as long as their conversation is not disturbing others who are unfamiliar with the language. Moreover, as long as the language is not offensive it should not be abolished. It is common place to find people from the same ethnic background speaking their native tongue in the work place or another setting where the rest are unfamiliar with it (Fink et. al.1996)iii. ... There in no problem whatsoever with employees speaking their native language in the work place as long as their conversation is not disturbing others who are unfamiliar with the language. Moreover, as long as the language is not offensive it should not be abolished. It is common place to find people from the same ethnic background speaking their native tongue in the work place or another setting where the rest are unfamiliar with it (Fink et. al.1996)iii. With this in mind if a policy of this nature is introduced the ones affected shall feel targeted and this shall create a tension-like environment which is by large against Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It will be taken to be a punishment to those speaking (in most cases) a foreign language. This phenomenon of having people from divergent origins should be taken as a source of a rich culture and in the organization that should be natured rather than abolished. Divergence in many instances f natural existence is a source of strength and not a weakness. The organisation should be quite keen in coming up with the 'English only policy'. Impacts of policy The organization to a great extent will stand to lose in case this policy is adopted. This is as a result of the ones who are affected feeling neglected and taking the management to be inconsiderate. It also makes them feel to be the minority especially where the language in question is foreign. With this kind of resentment the workers' productivity shall surely fall. On the other hand the English speaking workers will tend to take their bilingual coworkers as inferiors; a situation that will spark tensions based on ethnicity. The supervisors will start facing problems with uncooperative attitude from the bilingual workers as well as absenteeism which

Community Crime Watch in New Jersey Research Paper

Community Crime Watch in New Jersey - Research Paper Example According to this research, there are opportunities to improve security in the entire community if the recommendations are implemented to the letter. My vision is for a community where people can go about their businesses without fear of being gagged. To achieve this vision, a number of initiatives to address the current community problems have been proposed in my final report. These initiatives are based on wide-ranging consultations with community members, law enforcement agencies and the relevant government officials. I believe New Jersey would be one of the most progressive and secure places in the country. Once again, am thankful for the opportunity to be part of the solution to the problem regarded highly in the community. Warm regards, Xxxxx(Sign) xxxxxxxxx (Name) Table of Contents Executive Summary 3 Introduction 4 Neighborhood Watch Programs 4 How Neighborhood Watch Works 5 Systematic Review of Neighborhood Watch in Practice 7 Concluding Recommendations 8 References 11 Execu tive Summary I was appointed and mandate to review the current security situation in New Jersey, identify the gaps for improvements, identify best practices, consult with the community members, and develop recommendations to arrest the current security menace in this area. This report has engendered the opinions of a diverse group of people including community action groups and the security agencies in New Jersey. It contains the Neighborhood Watch Programs samples, how they work, a review of successful stories, and the recommendations intended to inform better decisions leading to a secure New Jersey by changing the prevailing attitudes toward security agencies as well as adopting proven best practices in Neighborhood Crime Watch programs. Introduction The criminal justice system has saved the community for centuries by using a very simple logic to ensure a secure neighborhood: taking the "criminals" away and putting them behind bars away from the rest of the population. It evident within the current functioning of the justice system that many loopholes exist that has led to the worsening of security apparatus in place. As it was done then, the aforementioned method can still work. However, the dynamics within which the old system worked is totally different from the current situational analysis, and a new approach to institute tighter security is urgently required, particularly in New Jersey. Neighborhood Watch Programs The term â€Å"Neighborhood Watch† surfaced out of a movement promoting the involvement of the people towards crime prevention in the United States (Titus, 1984). It is often â€Å"three pronged† package that not only entails Neighborhood Watch but also property-marking and survey of homes concerning how secure they are (Titus, 1984). Variations encompass block watch, home watch, apartment watch, community watch and the general alertness of the citizenry. Specifically, some of these programs include elements of recruitments for special, regular foot patrols that involve the selected citizens as well as and educational programs, auxiliary police patrol units, and services for victims affected in one way or the other. Neighborhood Watch operates mainly by residents being on the look out for suspicious incidents and reporting them to the police once spotted. It is one of the potential deterrence measures that prevent possible offenders from committing criminal activities (Bennett 1990). One of the first Neighborhood Watch programs was the Seattle Community Crime Prevention

English Only Policy in the Work Place Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

English Only Policy in the Work Place - Essay Example The recommendation mandating the exclusive use of English at all times in the workplace should not be made into a policy. The policy recommending for the exclusive use of the English language should not be adopted in the organization. Adoption of this policy will at a huge extent bring forth more negative outcomes than positive ones. This is considering the whole organization at large and the employees in more specific terms. Whereby an employee fails to perform their duties or tasks effectively due to their failure to speak English in the workplace or the case where they use a foreign language or an accent that affects their output. There in no problem whatsoever with employees speaking their native language in the work place as long as their conversation is not disturbing others who are unfamiliar with the language. Moreover, as long as the language is not offensive it should not be abolished. It is common place to find people from the same ethnic background speaking their native tongue in the work place or another setting where the rest are unfamiliar with it (Fink et. al.1996)iii. ... There in no problem whatsoever with employees speaking their native language in the work place as long as their conversation is not disturbing others who are unfamiliar with the language. Moreover, as long as the language is not offensive it should not be abolished. It is common place to find people from the same ethnic background speaking their native tongue in the work place or another setting where the rest are unfamiliar with it (Fink et. al.1996)iii. With this in mind if a policy of this nature is introduced the ones affected shall feel targeted and this shall create a tension-like environment which is by large against Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It will be taken to be a punishment to those speaking (in most cases) a foreign language. This phenomenon of having people from divergent origins should be taken as a source of a rich culture and in the organization that should be natured rather than abolished. Divergence in many instances f natural existence is a source of strength and not a weakness. The organisation should be quite keen in coming up with the 'English only policy'. Impacts of policy The organization to a great extent will stand to lose in case this policy is adopted. This is as a result of the ones who are affected feeling neglected and taking the management to be inconsiderate. It also makes them feel to be the minority especially where the language in question is foreign. With this kind of resentment the workers' productivity shall surely fall. On the other hand the English speaking workers will tend to take their bilingual coworkers as inferiors; a situation that will spark tensions based on ethnicity. The supervisors will start facing problems with uncooperative attitude from the bilingual workers as well as absenteeism which

APPENDIX F Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

APPENDIX F - Assignment Example Write an equation that illustrates this situation. Use the same variables you used in part a. c) Use the equations from part a and b of this exercise as a system of equations. Use substitution to determine how many of each type of floor plan is available. Describe the steps you used to solve the problem. For part B: The x-axis intercept will be when y=0 or when x= 0 and for y-axis intercept will be when x= 0 , it will be at y = 0 This implies the straight line will be passing through point (0,0) mathematically called the origin. a) The sales representative here tells you they also have two floor plans available, but they only have 38 homes available. Write an equation that illustrates the situation. Use x and y to denote floor plan #1 and floor plan #2 respectively. b) The representative tells you that floor plan #1 sells for $175,000 and floor plan #2 sells for $200,000. She also mentions that all the available houses combined are worth $7,200,000. Write an equation that illustrates this situation. Use the same variables you used in part a. 3. You recently started the paperwork to purchase your new home, and you were just notified that you can move into the house in 2 weeks. You decide to hire a moving company, but are unsure which company to choose. You search online and are interested in contacting two companies, Heavy Lifters and Quick Move, to discuss their rates. Heavy Lifting charges an $80 fee plus $35 per hour. Quick Move charges $55 per hour with no additional fees. Answer: Let us tabulate the calculated cost of hiring against the required hours: Then graph for the range is drawn using MS Excel. The graph shows that after we cross the threshold of four hours and go above it in requirement, then the heavy Lifters offer a better

Leadership: Impact On A Healthcare Organization

Leadership: Impact On A Healthcare Organization The field of health-care is labor intensive and based on powerful know-how (Kanste, 2008). In contemporary medicine both therapeutic as well as nursing tasks are performed by a team, rather than an individual, being it a doctor or a nurse, respectively. No team work can be effective without a leader; this is also true for good nursing in which the leadership is very crucial and vital. All the results of good nursing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦may be spoiled or utterly negative by one defect, viz: in petty management (Florence Nightingale as cited in McEachen Keogh, 2007, pg.01). The health care environment becomes more competitive every day. There are few professions in which the complications of poor performance are as serious as in nursing and there are few professionals who feel the pressure of responsibility more keenly than nurses (Kenmore, 2008). This paper presents discourses on the contemporary leadership styles and highlights the characteristics and development of an effective leader a nd discusses the impact of effective leader on organisations potential to succeed. Leadership styles The continued search for good leaders resulted in the development of many leadership theories. Although leadership is not a new concept, and its fundamental function is well documented, there is no theoretical agreement or a universal definition of leadership (Farag, Mc Guinness Anthony, 2009; Mahoney, 2004 and Murphy, 2005). However, some scholars believe that certain leadership characteristics or personality traits are innate in effective leaders (Murphy, 2005). Thus the perspectives of Great man or trait theories which dominated until 1950s, states that leader are born and not made (Murphy, 2005). In the 1950s, behavioural and social scientists began to analyse leadership behaviour. The behavioural theory says that leaders are not born to lead, but learn leadership behaviour (McEachen Keogh, 2007). The efforts of these researchers were fundamental in isolation of three common leadership styles: autocratic, democratic and lassiez-faire (Murphy, 2005). The Contingency theory by Fi edler was further expanded by Herset, Blanchard and Johnson as the Situational theory (Murphy, 2005). Later, some contemporary leadership theories such as the charismatic, transactional, transformational and shared leadership theory gave rise to the contemporary leadership styles (Murphy, 2005). The contemporary leadership styles include quantum, charismatic, transactional, transformational, relational, shared and servant leadership (Murphy, 2005).Though there are many leadership styles identified in the literature, laissez-faire, transactional and transformational leadership styles are the primary leadership styles identified in the nursing and management studies (Farag et al., 2009). Laissez-faire leadership indicates the absence of leadership (McGuire Kennerly, 2006). This leadership style is ineffective in promoting purposeful interaction and it contributes to organizational demise (McGuire Kennerly, 2006). Transactional leaders view the leader-follower relationship as a process of exchange (McGuire Kennerly, 2006). On the other hand, transformational leadership is a process that motivates followers by appealing to higher ideals and moral values (Trofino, 2005). The transactional leader sets goals, gives directions and tends to gain compliance by offering rewards for performance (McEachen Keogh, 2007). Whereas, by inspiring a shared vision through clear roles, effective teamwork and providing feedback on individual or team performance transformational leaders enables the staff to explore their professional practice (Halm, 2010). The three elements of transactional leadership are: contingent reward, where the leader provides reward that is dependent on the performance; passive management by exception, where the leader takes corrective action when problems arise and active management by exception, where the leader takes corrective action in anticipation of problem (Chen, Beck Amos, 200 5; McGuire Kennerly, 2006; Rukmani, Ramesh Jayakrishnan, 2010). Similarly, the four elements of transformational leadership are idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration (McGuire Kennerly, 2006; Halm, 2010). The expected outcome of transactional leadership is enhanced role clarity, job satisfaction and improved performance (McGuire Kennerly, 2006). On the contrary, the ultimate outcome of transformational leadership is to change the mental model of employees, to link desired outcome to values held by employees and to build strong employee identification within the group or organization (McGuire Kennerly, 2006; Halm, 2010). There are also some pitfalls and limitations of transactional leadership. Transactional leadership might not yield the same results across culture; such as, most North American culture which emphasize individualism, whereas many Asian culture emphasize collectivism (McGuire Kennerly, 2006). Hence, transactional leaders need to understand at which level to establish their reward system- individual or collective reward (McGuire Kennerly, 2006). Transactional leaders cannot provide leadership over task areas in which they have no expert knowledge (McGuire Kennerly, 2006). Likewise, there are some limitations to transformational leadership. Transformational leaders need to be updated in their knowledge and skills (McGuire Kennerly, 2006; Halm, 2010). There is a growing demand for evidence-based decision making, where, to show leadership, a transformational leader need to cite hard and factual evidence, as transformational leaders have nothing worth saying without strong evidence. Fin ally, the transformational leaders will be needed to inspire flexible, multi skilled work forces to bridge the barriers established by rigid job description and functional departments (Trofinio, 2004). Transformational leadership is not an alternative to transactional leadership, but it augments transactional leadership (Spinelli, 2006). Therefore, an effective leader achieves a balance between transformational and transactional behavior, thus creating a leadership style which matches the needs of followers (McGuire Kennerly, 2006). The current shortage of nurses at the bedside magnifies the importance of having a strong, clear, and supportive and inspiration leadership across health care organization (McGuire Kennerly, 2006). Characteristics and development of effective leader While there is disparity amongst the theorist definitions of leadership, there is consensus pertaining to qualities necessary to realize effective leader (Murphy, 2005). There are various traits of an effective leader mentioned throughout the literature. Having a vision is a key feature of effective leadership and it is the clarity of vision evolved by the leader about the future of the organization that distinguish them as effective (Joyce, 2009). An effective leader has a vision for the future, which helps him to set objectives, aims, goals and standards and to achieve the set goals; the leader has a plan to implement (Fletner, Mitchell, Norris Wolfe, 2008). Tomey (2009) mentions some of the essential leadership traits which also empower people. These include accessible, collaborative, communicative, flexible, good listener, honest, influential, knowledgeable, positive, supportive and visible (Tomey, 2009). An effective leader should also posses job knowledge, positive attitude, d elegation skills, positive partnership and should be a role model, dependable, motivating, and compassionate (Fletner et al., 2008; Cook Leathard, 2004). An effective leader must recognize the individual strength and weakness of each person involved, shifting focus as necessary in an effort to elevate each persons level of effectiveness as an individual and as a part of a team (Fletner et al., 2008). As Joyce, 2008, rightly quotes that effective leaders walk the talk. Consequently, there is consistency between their values, vision, standards and behavior (Fletner et al., 2008; Joyce, 2008). A good leader should ideally possess all of the identified characteristics, or at least a majority of them (Fletner et al., 2008). Fletner et al. (2008) also reveal that any characteristics can be a leaders strength or weakness depending on the situational needs and persons involved in the given scenario. Neither there is just one characteristic that defines a leader, nor should, the entire identified characteristic be required when determining whether an individual would be an effective leader (Fletner et al., 2008). Likewise, to say one character istic is more important than the other is to fragment the idea of leadership (Fletner et al., 2008). A leader with insufficient leadership training might become exhausted in trying to achieve the organizational goals and thus, in turn, a leader might burnout and dissatisfaction among subordinates might increase (Chen, Beck Amos, 2005). One of the greatest challenges we face in nursing profession is to develop future nurse leaders (Jumaa, 2008; Kleinman, 2004; Mahoney, 2004; Murray DiCroce, 2003). Hence, training effective leaders has been proposed as a key to increase professionalism in nursing (Chen, Beck and Amos, 2005). Although it remains unclear, how to best prepare effective leaders, evidence suggest that graduate education may be an important precursor to the development of effective leadership style (Kleinman, 2004; Mahoney, 2004). Developing a relationship with specific academic provider of registered nurse to Bachelor of Science in nursing programs and graduate education in nursing administration may facilitate nurse managers returning for advanced education (Klienman, 2 004). Onsite and distance education programs may offset obstacles of scheduling and geography (Kleinman, 2004). The feasibility of mandating graduate education requirements for all practicing nurse managers is limited; therefore, continuing education strategies must focus on nurse manager leadership training (Kleinman, 2004; Mahoney, 2004; Wilson, 2005). An effective continuing educational program should consider providing monetary incentive and an organizational commitment that allows sufficient time to be spent on course work, in addition to management responsibilities (Kleinman, 2004). Conley, Branowicki and Hanley (2007), recommend a three component orientation for nursing leaders including nurse manger competencies, precepting by supervisor and written and classroom resources. Learning about the history of nursing, and especially about people who greatly influenced the development of nursing, has a fundamental meaning in fulfilling the vocation for nursing (Kosinska Niebroj, 2 004). In this context, the statement saying that history is a teacher of life seems to be true and of paramount importance for creating leaders (Kosinska Niebroj, 2004). The Leading Empowered Organizations(LEO) program, shared between United Kingdom and United State of America, is constructed around a model that identifies consensus decision making, interdependence, positive discipline, responsibility, authority and accountability as key areas of effective leading (Cook Leathard, 2004). Recognizing the need to invest in nurse managers to reduce turnover, the Pacific Northwest Nursing Leadership Institute was created in Washington State, in 2002, to support the development and preparation of nursing leaders (Wilson, 2005). Thus, there are various programs, education and institutions, to encourage the development of leadership skills among nurses; which highlights the impact that an effective leader can have on the organization. Impact of effective leadership on organization The inability of hospital to retain staff nurses threatens the adequacy of health care delivery and increases personnel and patient care costs (Kleinman, 2004). Many factors have led to rising health care costs, which have increased faster than the general inflation over the past three decades (Spinelli, 2006). Performance standards for effective leaders require them to be accountable for transactional processes such as budgets, productivity and quality monitoring; while at the same time displaying transformational characteristics by acting as a coach, mentor and a leader (Kleinman, 2004; Spinelli, 2006). A creative work climate has a strong relationship to job satisfaction and the nurse manager is an important link in creating such a climate (Sellgren, Ekvall, Tomson, 2006; DeCasterle, Willemse, Verschueren Milisen, 2008). Job satisfaction has been described as the most important predictor for nurses intention to remain employed (Sellgren et al., 2006; Carney, 2008). The perception of staff nurses towards the leadership behavior of their manager was significantly related to their job satisfaction (Sellgren et al., 2006; Klienman, 2004). Staff that perceives job satisfaction is essential for the ability to give high quality and safe care (Sellgren et al., 2006). Job dissatisfaction leads to absenteeism, problems of grievances, low morale and high turnover (Wong Cummings, 2007). On the contrary, poor leadership was found to be one of the main reasons for dissatisfaction and intention to leave (Neilsen, Yarker, Brenner, Randall and Borg, 2008 and Sellgren et al., 2006). Altered perfo rmance, affecting patient outcome, which in turn results in higher employment cost is also found to be associated with decreased job satisfaction (Wong Cummings, 2007). The findings of the study done by Wong and Cummings (2007) and Kenmore, (2008), suggest that there is a relationship between leadership and patient satisfaction, patient mortality and patient safety outcomes, adverse events and complications. Positive leadership behavior increased patient satisfaction, and decreased incidences of patient mortality, adverse events and complication (Wong Cummings, 2007). Effective nursing leadership is essential to the creation of practice environments with appropriate staffing level, that support nurses in preventing unnecessary death, adverse events and complications (Wong Cummings, 2007). A recent study done in mental health service organizations show that, both organizational culture and organizational climate impact work attitude and subsequently staff turnover (Wong Cummings, 2007). Effective leaders can also help in the recruitment process by recruiting staff as per the job description and thus help in the organizational development (Neilsen et al., 2008 and Sellgren et al., 2006). The study done by Wong and Cummings (2007), in Singapore, to determine the effect of leadership behavior on employee outcome, shows that in times of stress and chaos, leadership styles that transform, create meaning in the midst of turmoil and produce desirable employee outcome are more beneficial for organizations existence and performance. Conclusion In conclusion, it is apparent that nurses can lead the health care industry as they comprise the major component of all health care employees; being on the front line and having the most frequent direct contact with the patients and their families. The increasing emphasis on fiscal accountability in global recessionary times places even greater emphasis on measuring organizational effectiveness (Joyce, 2009). The need to move a health care organization forward in an era of declining profit margin, diminishing capacity, manpower shortages and technological expansion cannot be overstated. The call for the nurses to become recognized leaders of health care industry; possessing the knowledge, skills and attitudes relevant for effective leadership and the necessity to use the technology of the 21st century to aim for an essentially global community are the key perspective significant to nursing leadership and management(Jumaa, 2008). Effective leadership behavior is the key to productive and happily satisfied nurses with great organizational commitment. Nevertheless, it is how the leader leads in the context of the setting which is paramount. To sum up, positive or effective leadership is critical towards achieving and driving organizational effectiveness. Lymphatic Filariasis Disease: Causes and Treatments Lymphatic Filariasis Disease: Causes and Treatments Abstract Lymphatic Filariasis is a disease that is on the World Health Organizations (WHO) top ten list of diseases to eliminate by 2020. Left untreated and undetected, it can lead to a condition called Elephantiasis. The name comes from the severe swelling of the limbs that occurs during the chronic state of the disease. It is transmitted via mosquitoes to humans in tropical and sub-tropical climates and it is endemic in a large number of countries around the world. Prevention is possible via some very basic methods and early detection and treatment can prevent long-term consequences associated with the disease. Lymphatic Filariasis is a little known disease in the United States but it is on the World Health Organizations top ten list of diseases to eliminate along with Malaria and leprosy (Narain, J.P., Dash, A.P., Parnell, B., Bhattacharya, S.K., Barua, S., Bhatia, R. et al., 2010). A large portion of the population of the planet is at risk of contracting this often debilitating disease. Common Names Lymphatic Filariasis is also referred to as Bancrofts Filariasis and Elephantiasis when the disease it has progressed to its chronic state. (Elephantiasis, 2010). Causative Organisms The main causative organism is a microscopic parasitic roundworm. There are three different types of this worm: Wuchereria bancrofti (most common and makes up 90% of all cases), Brugia malay and Brugia timori (Longe, 2006). Wuchereria bancrofit lives in warm regions on every continent except North America (Callahan, 2002). Brugia malayi is primarily found in India, Southeast Asia and Indonesia (Callahan, 2002). Brugia timori is found to a very limited extent in Timor. Symptoms The disease has two stages, acute and chronic. When the disease is in the acute phase, the symptoms usually include a recurring fever and infections of the lymph vessels or nodes in the arms, legs or genitals which can lead to severe and permanent swelling of the lymph vessels and secondary infections (Elephantiasis, 2010). In the chronic stage, the worms block the lymphatic areas of the limbs which cause overgrowth of the limb or body part because the lymphatic system is not able to perform its function of draining fluid out of the area (Callahan, 2002). Males may also have swelling in the scrotum. This is how the disease gets the name of Elephantiasis because the limbs enlarge to the point where they resemble elephant limbs and the skin takes on a rough texture like elephant skin (Ferrara, 2010). Incubation Period The precise mechanism that causes the pathology of the disease is not known and some people who are infected may not show any signs or symptoms for many months and sometimes even years (Rajan, 2003). The parasite apparently only infects humans and has never been found to affect animals. The parasite migrates to the lymphatic vessels and takes up residence. It then matures into the worm over the course of a few months to one year and begin producing the microfilariae which is suspected of causing the initial fevers and chills that are the first symptoms of the disease (Rajan, 2003). Also, if a person is infected once, they may never actually develop any symptoms even though the worm is living in their lymphatic system and the microfilarasia are circulating in their blood. It is repeated exposure with multiple worms along with the worms excretions and blockage of the lymphatic system that seems to cause the disease to progress to its most severe form especially since the worm will norm ally die sometime after seven year (Rajan, 2003). Duration of Disease The duration of Lymphatic Filariasis varies depending on the number of re-infections suffered by a host. A person with Elephantiasis can live with the disease and usually dies from complications and secondary infections from the worms both living and dead (Wallace Kohatsu, 2008). The disease can last a lifetime and can worsen over time if left untreated. The disfiguring growth of the limbs or genitalia is another side effect as well as permanent damage to the lymphatic system, kidneys and secondary infections. There is also a social stigma to the deformities that accompany the chronic stages of the disease. Those who suffer from the disease are often ostracized. The adult worm normally lives from three to five years and the microfilariae will die after twelve months if not taken up by a mosquito to begin the next phase of the lifecycle (Longe, 2006). Transmission A person contracts the disease by being bitten by an infected mosquito of the genera Culex, Aedes or Anopheles. The mosquitoes are the intermediate hosts and when they bite someone, they inject the third-stage larvae into the blood of the host (Elephantiasis, 2010). Once injected into a human host, the larvae mature into worms which move to the lymphatic system and after about one year, produce embryo called microfilariae (Callahan, 2002). Adult worms live for about seven years (Ferrara, 2010). It is the buildup of adult worms in the lymphatic system over time that causes lymph fluid to collect which leads to severe swelling of the limbs and groin area (Ferrara, 2010). The microfilariae circulate in the blood stream waiting to be taken up by a mosquito. Interestingly, the microfilariae are at their most active in the blood at night when mosquitoes are also most active (Wallace Kohatsu, 2008). This increases the chance of being taken up by a mosquito and continuing the lifecycle. Whe n a mosquito bites and infected host, they take up the microfilariae along with the blood. The larvae mature to the second state in the mosquitoes. Repeated exposure and repeated transmission of larvae that can mature into adult worms is usually what brings on the symptoms (Ferrara, 2010). A person who is bitten once and infected may never actually experience any symptoms. Prevention and Treatment The disease is being attacked from many angles by the WHO. Those who have an active parasite are normally treated with the drug Diethylcarbamazine (DEC) which will both limit the number of microfilariae in the blood stream and gradually kill the parasite (Lammie, Milner Houston, 2006). The drug will cause some nausea and vomiting and sometimes fever depending on the level of microfilariae in the blood (Elephantiasis, 2010). However, because the treatment lasts for over one year, it is sometimes difficult to get the needed medical supplies to the areas with the highest incidence in a cost effective manner. Since the drug DEC seems to act as a deterrent as well as a cure, there is a proposal to add DEC to salt for distribution in the affected areas of the world in much the same manner that iodine was added to salt (Lammie, Milner Houston, 2006). Trials with DEC fortified salt have been carried out in China, Brazil, Haiti, India and Tanzania with great success since DEC laced salt acts as a protective measure as well as providing benefits for those already infected (Lammie, Milner Houston, 2006). Other drugs used in treatment include ivermectin and albendazole and more recently doxycycline (Wallace Kohatsu, 2008). Albendazole will kill the worms but does not have any effect on the microfilaria in the blood so the transmission cycle will continue unless the intermediate host is also reduced or eliminated (Wallace Kohatsu, 2008). In addition to drug therapies, movement of the affected limbs is encouraged along with antibiotics for any secondary infections caused by damage to the lymphatic system (Ferrara, 2010). There is little that can be done once the lymphatic swelling has set in other than attempting to force the lymph out via compression bandages (Elephantiasis, 2010). The other alternative is surgery to correct the affected limbs but this is sometimes not cost effective. Because the causative agent spends a portion of its lifecycle in the mosquito, the preventative measures that are being undertaken include the use of insect repellent and protective clothes in affected areas as well as water treatment to reduce the insect population that transmits the disease to humans (Wallace Kohatsu, 2008). Other measures include the use of mosquito netting, screens on windows and staying inside after dark when mosquitoes are the most likely to be active (Ferrara, 2010). In addition, while the mosquitoes are being dealt with, the population near the affected area can be given DEC as a preventative treatment so that the cycle of transmission is broken (Elephantiasis, 2010). Antibiotics have also been shown to be effective in the past but because antibiotics should not have any impact on a nematode, the effect of antibiotics was dropped until recently. There has also been some investigation into the possibility that a certain population of the worms themselves have a bacterial symbiont which is susceptible to the antibiotics (Rajan, 2003). The suspicion is that the two species have become dependent and if the symbiont dies, the host dies as well. If this is proven true, then antibiotics may also be used at some point in the future to treat lymphatic Filariasis in some cases. It is also suspected that some of the inflammation and other secondary infections might actually be caused by the symbiont rather than the nematode. Incidence: World, USA and Colorado Approximately eighty to one-hundred million people in 75 countries around the world are at risk of contracting Lymphatic Filariasis and forty million are in the chronic stages of the disease and suffer from the disfiguring disability known as Elephantiasis (Lammie, Milner, Houston, 2006). Lymphatic Filariasis occurs primarily in tropical and subtropical countries mostly in coastal areas with high humidity although it also occurs in Japan and China and come European countries (Elephantiasis, 2010). The area with the highest risk is south-East Asia. Lymphatic Filariasis at one point appeared in Charleston, South Carolina until about 1920 but then dies out before World War II (Elephantiasis, 2010). The reason for the disappearance in the United States is due to mosquito control and water sanitation (Elephantiasis, 2010). It occurs in the United States primarily where it has been contracted elsewhere and brought back to the United States (Elephantiasis, 2010). There does not seem to be any incidence of the disease in Colorado primarily because the climate and altitude and mosquito population do not generally offer a good climate for the life cycle. Mortality Rate: World, USA and Colorado Lymphatic Filariasis although impacting millions does not have a high mortality rate. The chief issue with the disease is the ongoing illnesses and secondary infections along with lost productivity and economic hardship suffered by those affected. According the World Health Organization, Lymphatic Filariasis is a targeted disease for elimination due to the large number of people at risk (Weekly epidemiological record, 2009). Those who contract the disease can live with it for all or most of their lives and it is the repeated infections via mosquito bites that eventually lead to the progression to the chronic state of the disease and eventual death ((Narain, J.P., Dash, A.P., Parnell, B., Bhattacharya, S.K., Barua, S., Bhatia, R. et al., 2010) Isolation Technique The disease is difficult to detect because the initial infection may not present any symptoms as the worm moves to the lymphatic system and matures. It can also take some time for the Microfilaria to show in the blood in sufficient quantity. The isolation technique will either focus on detecting the adult worm or the microfilariae. Blood samples can be taken and the sheathed microfilaria can be detected in a Giemsa stain which is a stain specifically used for detecting the presence of microfilaria in the blood (Wallace, Kohatsu, 2008). A methylene azure B. stain is used on the blood sample and if there is microfilaria in the blood, they will appear blue or purple. It is important that this blood be taken in the evening when the microfilaria is most active. The microfilaria can move out of the blood during the day so blood samples taken in daylight hours can sometimes result in false negatives (Longe, 2006). Also, it is possible that an infected person will not have any microfilaria in the blood. The worm itself is very hard to detect because it is buried in the lymphatic system. Another technique used is to look for what is called the filarial dance sign in the scrotum (Wallace Kohatsu, 2008). This is a visible detection of the worms movements via ultrasound. Conclusion Lymphatic Filariasis is a preventable disease that strikes poor countries in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Its debilitating effects have made it a target for elimination in the countries affected. Prevention methods are basic and include proactively spraying for the mosquitoes and treating the population with DEC laced salt or administration of DEC in tablet forms in order to break the cycle of infection. In addition, common precautions against mosquitoes can also be used such as protective clothing, netting and sprays.

Wide Area Networks Essays -- Technology Computers Communication Essays

Wide Area Networks The creation of wide area networks links mass communication from people all over the world with a vast variety of different uses. â€Å"A wide area network is telecommunications networks covering a large geographic area.† The internet is the biggest example of a wide area network and has influenced our daily lives all around the world. Wide area networks are connected to local area networks to enable computers to share, send, and access information on a larger scale. These recent technologies over the past 20 years have affected the way we communicate, how businesses operate, and many other factors that we take for granted. Wide area networks are a fast growing telecommunications business which are developing new technologies to help people access information easier, faster with cheaper costs. Wide Area Networks and why, where, who, and how it important? â€Å"Wide area networks are used to connect local area networks together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private, others, built by Internet service providers provide connections from an organization’s LAN to the Internet.† WANs are usually built with leased lines from different telecommunications companies. At the end of these lines is a router which allows access and transmissions through these given lines. Through various telecommunications devices and services wide area networks are the leading technology in transmitting global information and communication. â€Å"The main purpose of a WAN is to provide reliable, fast and safe communication between two or more places with low delays and at low prices.† â€Å"WANs can be linke... ...nt to help influence the computer age into a bright, and much larger future. References Duley, CJ. WAN (2000) http://www.btinternet.com/~C.J.Duley/WAN.htm O’Brien, James A. (2004) Management Information Systems: Managing information technology in the business enterprise. Sixth Edition. McGraw Hill, Boston. Ploskina, Brian DNA Lends Hand to WANs http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1759,1242507,00.asp?kc=EWNKT0209KTX1K0100440 August 28, 2001 Alliance Datacom: Wide Area Networks http://www.alliancedatacom.com/technologies/wide-area-network/wide-area-networks.asp Documentation. (2002) http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/introwan.htm#xtocid8 Cisco Systems, Inc. Wikipedia: Wide Area Network. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_area_network Wireless Wide Area Networking Technologies (2004). http://www.rhowireless.com/wan/

Washington :: essays research papers

ASHINGTON, Jan. 6 — The Pentagon is pushing for a substantial increase, in the range of $20 billion or more, for its 2003 budget, confident that the war on terrorism has strengthened Congressional and public support for rebuilding the armed services, senior military officials say. Even as Congress is projecting a budget deficit next year, the Pentagon is arguing that it will need significantly more money to cover rising health care costs, stockpile precision-guided munitions and accelerate an array of big-ticket programs, including fighter jets and warships. "There is a real necessity to do something we didn't really address in the last budget, which is ramp up procurement," said Under Secretary of Defense Dov S. Zakheim, the Pentagon comptroller. "It's got to go up." Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld has also vowed to use the budget for the 2003 fiscal year, which begins Oct. 1, to advance programs he has said will "transform" the military, including missile defense, unpiloted aircraft and high-tech battlefield communications equipment. Mr. Rumsfeld is expected to argue, for instance, that the armed services must stockpile laser- and satellite- guided weapons for future conflicts. Those munitions, which cost from $20,000 to $1 million each, exceeded expectations in Afghanistan, where they were used so extensively that the Navy arsenal came close to running dry, officials say. The secretary will also call for developing munitions that can penetrate caves and hardened, deeply buried bunkers — one area where military officials say American bombs were not always effective in Afghanistan. North Korea and Iraq are thought to have built many such bunkers for command centers and storage sites for biological and chemical weapons. Officials say Mr. Rumsfeld will also push for accelerating a program to convert Trident submarines, which are now armed with nuclear- tipped missiles, so they can instead carry precision-guided cruise missiles with conventional warheads. Dr. Zakheim said the Pentagon budget was still being negotiated with the White House and declined to provide figures. But senior military and Congressional officials have said the increase will be about $20 billion over the current $329 billion Pentagon budget, or about 6 percent, after adjusting for inflation. A $20 billion increase in the Pentagon budget would be less than the $33 billion increase approved by Congress last year, the largest since the Reagan era. But the new request comes in an economic downturn, when other federal agencies are being told to trim spending to balance declining tax revenues.